Louis Vuitton Introduction

LVMH Company Overview Louis Vuitton, a French fashion house, is now a brand of the LVMH group. It was first set up in 1854 by a young trunk-maker named Louis Vuitton. He started out by designing and manufacturing innovative stackable trunks. Products were sold through a company-owned sales outlet located in Paris. Then, in 1876, the company introduced luxury trunks with detachable frames. This is the first and initial success of Louis Vuitton, which enabled the firm to set up a new store in London in 1885.Sales kept increasing and the company was gaining more and more in popularity and reputation of a luxury brand. In 1987, Louis Vuitton – Moet Hennessy, better known as LMVH was formed, as a French multinational luxury goods  conglomerate, headquartered in  Paris. LVMH rapidly expanded to become the world leader in luxury goods. Bernard Arnault, the CEO of the company, took less than 12 years to build up LVMH through the acquisition of numerous luxury brands, expansion int o retailing and an aggressive globalization strategy.LVMH was named after the first two companies that were merged in 1987 to create the company: the luggage and leather-goods maker Louis Vuitton and the Champagne and Cognac producer Moet-Hennessy. In subsequent years, many more famous luxury goods producers were taken over and added to the conglomerate’s brand portfolio. In 2005, LVMH owned over 50 well-known brands operating in five main sectors: Wines & Spirits (which accounted for 19% of sales), Fashion & Leather goods (35% of sales), Perfumes & Cosmetics (16% of sales), Watches & Jewellery (4% of sales) and Selective Retailing (26% of sales).The mission of the LVMH group is to represent the most refined qualities of Western â€Å"Art de Vivre† around the world. LVMH must continue to be synonymous with both elegance and creativity. The products, and the cultural values they embody, blend tradition and innovation, and kindle dream and fantasy. In view of this missio n, five priorities reflect the fundamental values shared by all Group stakeholders: * Be creative and innovate * Aim for product excellence * Bolster the image of our brands with passionate determination * Act as entrepreneurs Strive to be the best in all we do However, Louis Vuitton brand has been facing many issues, especially in their logistic and supply chain management. In spite of the rapid increase of demand, Louis Vuitton doesn’t manage to respond appropriately to the growing demand. The question is the probability of default in the products. Thus, products must be resent to the warehouse and so on. It leads to a waste of time and money and an appropriate management of the logistics and supply chain.Louis Vuitton also faces different and many issues such as the lack of numbers of warehouse, the distance which separate it from the stores, the problem of inventory and so on†¦ What we are going to discuss in this report is to find out from where are these issues com ing from? Does Louis Vuitton have enough flexibility and responsiveness from the supply chain management of the firm? Is the firm developing too many new products while no customers are ready to buy them?

“a Fable” by Mark Twain

John Alarcon American Lit. Mr. Mason Research paper â€Å"A Fable† by Mark Twain- Close reading In this short story a painting is the reason for the occurrences described. Animals in this story are portrayed in a human like manner, each having their own ideas and feelings and a common method of communication. The painter’s cat is portrayed as a well-mannered and intelligent being. In the sentence â€Å"The animals out in the woods heard of this through the housecat, who was greatly admired by them because he was so learned†¦Ã¢â‚¬  the cat is made to look astute because the other animals are oblivious to many of the things he tells them. To a human, what the cat says may not sound accurate or right but to a group of animals that’s don’t know any better the cat seems brilliant. The vocabulary used by the cat to describe the painting and the mirror, also indicated that the cat is smart. The adjectives he uses are large and descriptive, the way he speaks and constructs his sentences shows how his level of thinking is superior. The Other animals were not described and interacted with in-depth enough to identify a personality for each of them. They were all made to be similar to one another because they were all in the same situation with the same opinions and ideas toward the painting . The only animal that stood out besides the cat was the ass. This being that he was the only one to have a doubt in the toward the greatly admired cat’s story. The cat aroused the interest and curiosity of the animals. He was the one that informed then of said painting. It was the doubts of the ass that provoked the animals to finally get a look at the painting. The ass was the first to investigate the situation; all the other animals after him got the same result from looking in the mirror. They stood in front of the painting which and all they saw was a reflection of themselves. Being that a different animal looked in the mirror every time, every animal got there own unique reflection of them self’s and were convinced it was the only thing inside the mirror and there was no â€Å"dainty and charming† painting. What the author is trying to explain in this story is that every person has their own meaning and opinion to a story. The painting being a story or work of literature and the mirror being your imagination that gives its own unique reflection and understanding of the text.

A study and importance of extra curricular activity

A study and importance of extra curricular activity Extra-curricular activity is a non-academic activity. It is as part of developmental modules which can make the students think from a rather plain point of view of themselves and the world around them. This can be obtained by their learning process and experiences from the activities that they had joined. Nesan D., as been mentioned in the article of Co-curricular activities in school (2009) stated that, more specifically, from joining these extra-curricular activities, students can perform better in the internal and external skills such are self acceptance, self esteem, sexual orientation, career goals and others. A.Rahman Z. Ahmaed M. (n.d) in the article of Curriculum planning, development and reform by the country’s educational goals are manifested in the Malaysian National Education Philosophy (NEP),said that, â€Å"Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce ind ividuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being, as well as being able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large†. Mostly when talk about extra-curricular, what came out from our minds are activities that related to the extra-curricular that we had been forced to join during our primary, secondary school such as Cadet Police, Puteri Islam and others. Unforgettable during our university life, we have been provided with one day which was named as extra-curricular day. At that day, all activities such as hockey club, swimming club, equestrian club and many more are been carried out. But, we have to realize, because extra-curricular is not limited to the activities that are only related only to clubs and uniformed bodies. Societies such Students Representative Council, Committee of College Students and so on are also categorized as extra-curricular. Even when you are active in certain particular clubs under college you are involve in extra-curricular. Actually there are three main types of co curriculum, first is society. Society can be classified as an organization or club for students who have specifically interest in specific activity. Second is uniform bodies, as I have mentioned above, is an organization that involved same uniform that they wear as their identity. Last is sport and games, this is the most popular one which involved students to spend time for fun as can maintain a good health. Some students like to join many extra-curricular activities, but other students do not. Therefore, their level of involvement in the extra-curricular activities limited to the desired and willingness of themselves. Then, from here, we have to remember, there are also pro’s and con’s when you are being active in extra-curricular. Benefits when you are joining this extra-curricular activities such are you get a chance being a leader, you can test how far your management skills, other than that, you can know how smooth you manage your time, the ability to handle stress, task delegation, decision making , carrying out meetings and many more. A part from that, bear in mind that, in any advantages, there are always disadvantages, there for, problem such as failure in managed time will lead to imbalance on academic. Through this research, we can know how far being active students can affect your academic performance. Whether it give negative or positive impact towards your studies performance. Because, different students give different academic performance.

FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF AC High Voltages UNDERGROUND CABLES AND SOLUTIONS Research Paper

FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF AC High Voltages UNDERGROUND CABLES AND SOLUTIONS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES - Research Paper Example I also looked at the formation of water trees in the plastic insulation and how both mechanical and chemical forces trigger them. Besides, charges can also lead to the formation of water trees. After a thorough analysis of fault detection techniques, I settled on two of them. They first one is the magnetic amorphous magneto†resistive concentric†neutral probing. The next method is the radio frequency test† point injection. The magnetic technique can detect a fault from an average distance of 90 feet. Underground cables have been in use for a long time in power distribution networks due to the advantages associated with underground connections. These cables are friendly to the environment, are not interrupted by adverse weather conditions, are less expensive for shorter distances and have got low maintenance costs. The disadvantages of these cables are that they are more expensive than overhead lines, have low power transferring capacity, are likely to get permanently damaged and fault location in underground cables is also difficult. Faults in underground cables are divided into two general groups that are permanent and incipient faults. Incipient faults develop from aging of insulation material that can be caused by chemical pollution, electrical overstress, severe environmental conditions and mechanical factors. Incipient faults gradually turn into permanent faults. Fault location is important in ensuring that distribution networks remain reliable as the restoration will be quick, so that power outage time is reduced. The cost of repair will also be low if a fault is located and corrected promptly. This research majorly studies how faults can be diagnosed in AC high voltage underground cables and the possible solution techniques for the faults. Some objectives must be achieved to realize this goal. The first objective is to establish the distinction between underground

Global Civilization Formal Essay on So Called Primitive Accumulation Research Paper

Marx's Explanation for the Capitalist Transformation and Jared Diamonds Argument of European Domination of the World - Research Paper Example The private property of the laborer is his means of production that he could use to form a petty industry important in the development of social production and independence. These kinds of modes were in practice in serfdom and slavery and have since transformed into classical forms especially where the laborer owns the means of production. The new form excludes the concentration of production on the forces of nature or the development of social productive measures. The transitional process has decomposed the whole society and further expropriated private proprietors. Today, labor is turned into capital and expropriation is accomplished through laws that centralize on capitalism. These results in the expropriation of many capitalists by a few connected capitalists who transform the instruments of labor into a system economizing the means of production and that entangle all people in the world market bringing the capitalistic regime to the international realm. The owners of capital usu rp and manipulate the advantages accrued from the transformation process creating exploitation, oppression, and degradation, which evokes revolt from the working class. The working class consists of the majority of people organized and united by the capitalistic system. The monopoly of capital becomes a mode of production and the socialization of labor and centralization of the means of production become an unmatchable creating conflict. The expropriator has become the expropriated. Marx traces back the expropriation to different instances in history claiming that it took different forms in different countries and went through different phases in different historical epochs (Marx 876).

Prejudice and discrimination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Prejudice and discrimination - Essay Example Globalization has developed along two main streams namely economic and cultural. For many, globalization is equated with economic interdependence. At the dawn of the 21st century, "the scale and magnitude of global economic interaction appears to be unprecedentedContemporary patterns of economic globalization suggest the emergence of a new international division of labor" (Brahm). Many would argue that globalization has benefited the wealthier nations and pushed developing nations into disadvantaged positions. There are perceived advantages and disadvantages in globalization. Some would view globalization as a factor the divides and widens the disparity between the rich and poor nations. Others would view globalization as an instrument of peace. They argue that countries that are trading partners are less likely to wage war against each other. Globalization attempted to homogenize cultures across the continent at the expense of cultural self-identity. It has bred the polarization of society's affluent and impoverished members. Saskia Sassen posited that globalization contributed to the class polarization while Janet Abu-Lughod concluded that globalization is contributory to the rise of class disparity. If one would adhere to the concept of convergence and global community, any attempt at creating inequity and conflict within the global convergence zone should be condemned. The resurgence of prejudice and discrimination in contemporary times contravene the context of the global village. As members of the global village, our society should not allow prejudice and discrimination socially, ethically and morally. Why is there Prejudice and Discrimination Elliot Aronson in Causes of Prejudice wrote that there are four mitigating circumstances that cause prejudice. They are: (1) economic and political competition or conflict, (2) displaced aggression, (3) personality needs, and (4) conformity to existing social norms (128). Economic and political circumstances motivate prejudice especially when there is a pronounce shortage on resources and one group would want to gain some advantage over a more inferior group. Often, prejudice occurs when there is intense competition for scarce resources. For example, in the nineteenth century, Americans felt threatened about their job security when companies started taking in Chinese immigrants to fill jobs that the native white Americans would not like to take. The Americans felt the Chinese were competing with them thus derogatory and racial slurs were often resorted to vent out their displeasure (130). Prejudice could be a form of 'scapegoating' where the fault of one individual of specific characteristics was transferred to another person perceived and generalized as having the same characteristics as the former but did not have anything to do with the original offense. A transference of aggression occurred when the desire to retaliate appeared to be "too big or too vague" (131). Prejudice in some instances could be a function of a flawed personality. Some individuals had personalities that were predisposed to become prejudiced not because of external or environmental influences. Finally, prejudice was motivated by the need for compliance or conformity to social norms. People were swayed to adopt a prejudicial attitude towards certain groups of people by way of previous histories, the idea that "it's just the way things are in my town", or a tradition

Managing and Leading Change_2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing and Leading Change_2 - Assignment Example Furthermore, the article pertains to the organization’s management for meeting complex requirements of the clients as well as the newly purchased ‘Global Advertising Giant Publicis Group SA’. A clear vision along with specific strategy may be required for the successful implementation of the change in processes and the expected result of that change. It is a fact that successful management that leading of change requires the active participation of all the relevant stakeholders (Myatt, 2012). Critical Evaluation The phenomenon of change is highly crucial. Therefore, the ability of managing and leading change is of incredible paramount importance. Keeping in view the fact, the Fallon took various steps to implement change successfully. In this regards, one of the positive initiatives of the organization is to acquire the five page manifesto and this step was taken by the Anne Bologna, planning director of Fallon's Minneapolis office. Moreover, in order to implement the manifesto, the organization has selected high level managers having multiple capabilities and skills. Overall, this scheme follows one (1) of the guidelines for the successful implementation of the change i-e creating urgency and making it feel that the change is going to be implemented. Moreover, the article specifies that the employees of the organization developed an alliance to implement change and this was one of the positive steps undertaken by the organization. Moreover, the Planning Director of the Fallon Worldwide took a step of drafting five (5) pages Manifesto for clearing the vision of the employee. Not only this, there is another guideline for implementing change is to communicate your change vision to all the employees to have their buy in; the same has been done by the employees of the Fallon Worldwide. Therefore, it can be stated that these other positive steps undertaken by the organization (BusinessBalss, 2013). However, on the other hand, there are weak point s as well or it can be said that there are certain other guidelines for implementing and managing change which have not been undertaken by the organization. It is vital to implement the change as soon as possible by creating and giving it high priority, but it has been observed that it took a year to the Fallon Worldwide for understanding the urgency of the matter (Kotter, 2012). Moreover, it is important for a leader (change implementer) to empower his / her subordinates to take extraordinary actions to bring about the desired change. In order to bring about a long term change, it is highly crucial that the leader should focus to attain short term goals. And these short term goals would always facilitate to achieve the long term goals. The Fallon Worldwide organization misses these points while implementing change and these were not only the guidelines which were not followed by the organization. In addition, apart from the article under discussion, there are guidelines for impleme nting change in an organization includes: the leader should never give up and change requires defying against all the odds and constantly motivating people to do the best. A good leader is the one that keeps on increasing the number of tasks so that subordinates keep motivated. Example of the Hotel Implementing Change In order to strengthen the above given analysis, a real story of an organization

Ability & Dance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ability & Dance - Essay Example Our reaction tends to wander from discomfort (should they be allowing a man with no legs to do that?) to rather patronizingly expressed wonder at how they are able to achieve that. We forget that the dance is meant to be enjoyed to be a beautiful spectacle and not an item of pity, discomfort or faked wonder (Kilgannon). Over the years the concept of a disabled person dancing has always been frowned upon as if it is an imposition as if it as an added burden – don t they have enough difficulty as it is just walking on one leg, how will they ever manage to dance as well? As do the reactions – fake or otherwise – â€Å"It must be really taxing to achieve that†. Yet these are never asked of able-bodied dancers. Instead we are too wrapped up in the beauty and completeness of their sequences. Which al suddenly becomes unimportant and unimpressive the minute we see a disabled person try the same thing (Kilgannon). The first is the sequence with the hoola hoops done by the very flexible gentlemen and the lady. This sequence enables the audience to be mesmerized by how the two blend together, with the hoops being utilized very efficiently as props that improve the story-telling and narration of the dance. We see the man and the woman almost compete as far as dexterity is concerned, each showing off how flexible they are and how intricately they can use the hoops. The second sequence is the one in the dance studio with the disabled man and the able-bodied ballet dancer where they intertwine their limbs in such a way as to meld together in a beautiful concert of their limbs, the man’s arms and the ladies legs (Kilgannon). In the film the issues are not just of physical ability there is also mental ability since one of the men has an obsessive compulsive disorder of some sort going on as well. The film basically shows the humanity of the characters and tries to remove the inability but, as it does

Fiscal Deficit and Economic Growth in an Economy Term Paper

Fiscal Deficit and Economic Growth in an Economy - Term Paper Example Fiscal Deficit and Economic Growth in an Economy India is a member nation of BRICS and the country is identified to be a developing economy. The country holds a global standing with respect to ‘gross national product’ (GDP) and ‘purchasing power parity’ (PPP). Multiple ups and down are identified within the economic structure of the country. However, despite of all the tediousness within its economic structure, the nation has projected remarkable survival instincts and has eventually displayed an appreciable response against its economic and fiscal issues. Such situations often results in deteriorating the rate of economic development as a result of the financial incapability of the government in context to spending more on the economic developmental procedures. Irrespective of all these economic achievements, multiple economists in the present scenario have still questioned regarding the fiscal stability of this nation, which in the practical scenario can be considered to be on the verge of collapsing (Ku mar, 2014). The increased provision of government subsidies within public distribution services and sectors can be considered as the prime factors that has crippled the revenue generating capabilities of India. Understanding the gravity of the destabilizing economic and fiscal situation, the present government has shown its active participation towards the implementation of appropriate fiscal modifications within the New Year’s budget.

Value and risk management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Value and risk management - Assignment Example Dundee arena has its substructure done as aggregate and isolated foundations but no permanency of the ice floor. As a result the concrete used is more in order to hold the weight of the ice floor. II. The frame work for Skydome arena is 9.4% of total cost and at  £176.44 per m2 compared to 9% of Dundee Arena and  £73.2 per m2. This gives a difference of 7.6% i.e.  £103.24 per m2. The two arenas both adopt steel frames for the construction. The difference in cost per m2 has resulted from the large roof being constructed and which lacks intermediate columns. These types of roof spans are quite expensive to put up. The span for Skydome arena is therefore in excess of 60m as a result requiring more quantities of steel in the roof trusses. Therefore the basic estimate of 80kg per m2 of the gross floor area is projected. The amount of steel applied in Dundee arena is less kilograms per metre squared. This is highly unlikely to jeopardize the quality of the stadium. However, adjustment can be made as necessary bearing in mind the total weight of the whole arena. The 80kg steel per m2 can be reduced to 60kg per m2 or even less if intermediate columns are used instead for suppor t. III. The Roofing is 8.6% for Skydome arena at  £161.46 per m2 as compared to 3% for Dundee Arena at  £22.5 per m2. An overestimate of 5.4% on roofing at  £139 per m2 is determined here. The roofing material and structure has deployed very expensive methods and materials. The roof for Skydome is intended to have partial composite construction with mastic asphalt for the plant area and clad with profiled metal decks on purlins. For the insulation a PVC single-ply membrane and a vapor barrier is adopted plus a plywood base. All these materials are very expensive and should be substituted with cheaper materials while maintaining quality of the roof structure. Dundee arena has adopted steel plates and metal cladding other than plywood and vapor barrier. IV.

The Many Issues Working Parents Face Essay Example for Free

The Many Issues Working Parents Face Essay Working parents may consider work to be either a blessing or a curse. Most people agree that without work there is no way to support oneself or a family. Both parents are forced to work because they want their children to experience â€Å"the good life.† However, on their road to success, working parents have to sacrifice several other things. In addition to a lack of family or leisure time, a person’s job also creates a lot of stress. Work can be the highway to success. However, hectic schedules caused by long hours of work can lead to negative changes in one’s personal life. Marilyn Gardner talks about a cop whose work hours are messed up. She states that Mr. Fulgham â€Å"works twelve-hour shifts which rotate between days and nights† and eats breakfast when his family is normally eating lunch. He gets almost no time with his family. When he gets a chance to spend time with his family, it causes the schedule of his family to get messed up too (Gardner 235-38). De Graaf, a journalist for the New York Times, states that â€Å"(u)ntil the current recession, Americans were working some of the longest hours in the industrial world.† Long hours at work lead to lesser time with family. For example, in â€Å"My Mother, Her Career, My Questions,† Palmer has a friend whose mother hardly spent any time with her. Being a doctor and working long hours, the mother was so tired when she came back home that she had to â€Å"force hers elf to play† with her kids (Palmer 244). This shows how work can have a negative impact of the person’s relationships with his/her family. Even parents feel guilty about not being able to spend enough time with family. They admit that the longer they work, the lesser time they spend with their kids (Seligson). It is said that people who work longer hours are more likely to get a divorce due to the lack of togetherness. The main point of being a â€Å"family† is that the members of the family have to be together and enjoy each other’s company. However, parents that work weird schedules or extremely long hours fail to spend enough time with their family. This loosens relationships and can even tear apart families. Thus, there has to be a balance between work time and family time. Parents are always aiming to work those extra hours to get more work done, but they do not realize that  they are missing out on their children’s lives. Additionally, working parents need to know that too much work can also cause Another negative effect of working long hours is the stress it causes. When there isn’t enough time to complete a certain project at work, a person works overtime to finish it. These long hours can mess up a person’s daily schedule. Anger, exhaustion and stress are some of the many negative effects long hours have on an individual (Gillian). Audrey Gillian, a journalist for The Guardian, feels that Ronald Regan was wrong when he said â€Å"hard work never killed anyone.† The health issues caused by working long hours can eventually lead to death. In addition to that, in â€Å"The Case for Staying at Home,† Claudia Wallis talks about how women have to work both at their workplace and at home which creates more stress and exhaustion. In â€Å"Serving in Florida† Barbara juggled two different jobs. With the minimum wage she got, she could hardly afford to pay her rent (Ehrenreich 179-186). She started working longer hours to get more money. Although she tried fighting till the end, she had to finally give up both her jobs because she was working all day and couldn’t seem to make ends meet (Ehrenreich 186). It seems like people have to choose between life and work. After coming back from a day of hard work, one would usually opt to take a break and just rest. However, women are expected to come home and attend to the family’s needs. She has to cook, clean and basically keep her family happy (Wallis 240). This causes the person to be stressed out and fatigued. People need to realize that it is fine to take a break from work once in a while. A person’s body has a certain limit for everything. When a person goes beyond that limit, the human body reacts and this causes stress and other health related issues. Stress leads to fights which lead to broken relationships. Are you ready to forget about family and only focus on your career? Most would say that there needs to be balance so that one can be successful at work and at the same time, maintain good relationships with his/her family. All in all, work may have a positive effect on our lives, but in excess it can ruin a person’s life and even break up families. Work can also make a person weary and tired. If you are in surgery, would you prefer a well rested doctor to operate on you or one who has been working the whole day with no break? I would surely opt for the rested one to make sure nothing would go wrong. People need to maintain a work-life balance so that the effects of work  don’t cause their life any harm. Works Cited de Graaf, John. Less Work, More Life. The Progressive Sept. 2010: 22+. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. Ehrenreich, Barbara. Serving in Florida. 2001. The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford, 2008. 179-86. Print. Gardner, Marilyn. More Working Parents Play Beat the Clock. The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2008. 235-38. Print. Gillan, Audrey. Work until You Drop: How the Long-hours Culture Is Killing Us. The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 20 Aug. 2005. Web. 06 Dec. 2012. Palmer, Kimberly. My Mother, Myself, Her Career, My Questions. The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2008. 243-45. Print. Seligson, Hannah. When the Work-Life Scales Are Unequal. The New York Times. The New York Times, 02 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. Wallis, Claudia. The Case for Staying at Home. 2006. The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric. Bedford, Freeman Worth Pub., 2008. 240-41. Print.

GSM Implementation

GSM Implementation GSM Implementation in various places Transaction terminals: SMS messaging can be used by machines like the EDC, POS terminals to conform transaction from the main server. Supply Chain Management: The GSM M2M technology can be used to fulfil the needs of SCMs huge IT infrastructures with leased lines, data centre, workstations. Multiple Remote Data Collection Points: With the help of the GSM modem connected to PCs, GSM electronic terminals PCs one can send and receive data from all over the world. This help client to receive data from branch offices, business associates, warehouses, and Mobile phones. Large Transaction Volumes: GSM SMS messaging is capable of handling large number of transaction data in a very small period of time as it can receive large number of messages on your server without internet connectivity. With the help of GSM at a time the shopkeeper can handle hundreds of transaction. High Uptime: GSM mobile network have high uptime as compared to other communication networks so it helps business. It can be used in communication industries as it doesnt require any kind of wires for setting up the network so there is no fear of cutting of wires. Implementation of GSM Technology There are three main parts of the GSM Network * Mobile Station (MS):-The subscriber carries out this part. * Base Station Subsystem (BSS) :- It controls radio link with mobile station. * Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS):- This part keeps track of the call switching between two mobiles and also looks over Memory management and also between fixed network users and mobile. Network structure All of the elements when combined together produce many GSM services such as voice calls and SMS. Mobile Station Consists of: * Mobile Equipment (ME):- These consist of equipment such as hand portable and vehicle mounted unit * Subscriber Identity Module (SIM):- It is a chip size object which contains the information about the user like its identification, secret keys. The BSS In the above diagram the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is shown containing the Base Station Controller (BSC) and the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) which are connected together on to A-bis interface. The Packet Control Unit (PCU) is also shown connected to the BTS although the exact position of this depends on the vendors architecture. The Air Interface or Um is used to connect the mobile to the BSS which is connected by the A interface to the NSS. The NSS The Network and Switching Subsystem(NSS)comprises of the MSC connected via the SS7 network to the HLR. The AUC and EIR, although function differently from the HLR are shown together as combining them is a standard in all Vendors networks. The NSS is connected by the A interface to the BSS. It is directly connected to the PSTN from the MSC. There is also a connection to the Packet Core (called the Gs) although this is optional and not always implemented. The GPRS Core Network The GPRS Core Network shown here consists of SGSN which is connected to the BSS by the Gb interface and the GGSN. These two devices are connected together to a private IP network called the GPRS backbone shown as the Gn Reference Point. http://www.pulsewan.com/data101/gsm_basics.htm http://sinarsuryakomindo.blogspot.com/2008/10/gsm-history.html http://foosms.com/gsm.htm MODULATION TECHNIQUE Modulation is the technique of embedment of a signal into the carrier frequency (wave). There may be analog (includes FM, AM) or digital modulation. In digital modulation Binary values 0 and 1 is embedded in the carrier frequency by changing its frequency, amplitude or phase. In this way digital modulation may be ASK (Amplitude shift keying), FSK (Frequency shift keying) or PSK (Phase shift keying). In GSM, GMSK (â€Å"Gaussian Minimum shift keying†, also known as â€Å"Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying†) Modulation technique is used which is a type of FSK that continuously uses Phase modulation. Advantages of GMSK over other techniques-> * Being able to carry digital modulation and efficiently using spectrum. * Sidebands do not extend outwards from main carrier like other phase shift keying and thus, it avoids interference. * No discontinuities as change in frequency occur at â€Å"carrier zero† crossing points. * Being continuous frequency shift keying modulation scheme. It uses the frequency hopping technique, which involves switching the call frequency many times per second for security. GMSK Fundamentals The unique factor of MSK (Maximum Shift Keying) is that frequency difference between the logical 1 and 0 states always equals to half of data rate, expressed in modulation index terms and always being equal to 0.5. MSK modulation Signal using MSK modulation Sidebands extend can be easily traced in the plot drawn for the spectrum of an MSK signal. Therefore before applying it to the carrier modulating signal is passed through a low pass filter (Gaussian filter). Before filtering it must have narrow bandwidth, sharp cut-off and impulse response should have no overshoot. Finally MSK signal gets converted to GMSK modulation. Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals Generation of MSK Modulation There are mainly two ways of to generate MSK modulation. Description of First way- The filtering of Modulating signal is done using Gaussian filter and then it is applied to frequency Modulator to set modulation index to 0.5. It is the simplest way. Its limitation lies in the fact that Modulation index must exactly equal to 0.5, which is practically not suitable as drifts are experienced by the components (which is not possible to be set exactly). Generating GMSK using a Gaussian filter and VCO Generating GMSK using Gaussian filter VCO Description of second way- Quadrature Modulator (or I-Q Modulator) is one of the ways. Here the phase of a signal lies in quadrature or 90 degrees to other one. It uses one signal, known as to be in-phase and another being quadrature to the first one. Use of Modulator of this type the Modulator index is exactly maintained to 0.5 without any further setting. Thus it is much easier to use and also it provides the required level of performance. Block diagram of I-Q modulator used to create GMSK Block diagram of I-Q modulator used to create GMSK For Demodulation the above techniques can be used in reverse. BASIC IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS- The three systems of GSM are * Switching system (SS) * Base station system (BSS) * Operation and support system (OSS) The Switching System- It is responsible for all call processing and other functions with following described units. GSM Network Elements Home Location Register (HLR)- It is the most important database of an operator storing every important details of subscribed customer. Whenever a customer buys a new connection his registration is made in HLR. Mobile services switching centre (MSC)- It performs telephony switching functions of system including controlling calls to and from other telephone and data systems. Visitor Location registers (VLR)- When a cell phone roams into a new MSC area, VLR connected to that MSC requests for data about mobile station from HLR. Later VLR will not need to interrogate HLR whenever customer makes any call. Authentication centre (AUC)- It verifies each callers identity and ensures confidentiality of each call. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)- This database stores information of Mobile devices thus preventing calla from unauthorised or stolen ones. Base Station System- It consists of Base Station Controllers (BSC)- It is the switch serving as physical links between MSC and BTS also providing functions like handover, cell configuration data, and control of Radio frequency (RF) power levels in BTS. Base Transceiver Stations (BTS)- It is the radio equipment which serves each cell in Network. A group of BTS are controlled by BSC. GSM Telecommunication Tower Operation and Support System (OMC)- This entity (connected to all equipment in switching System and to BSC) helps the operator to govern the whole system and offer customer cost-effective support and maintenance activities need for GSM network. Additional Elements- Message centre (MXE)- It Handles SMS, voice mail, fax mail, email, and cell broadcast. Mobile Service Node (MSN)- It governs Mobile intelligent network (IN) services. Gateway Mobile Services Switching Centre (GMSC)- It interconnects two networks. MSC then known as GMSC. GSM Interworking Unit (GIWU)- It consists of Hardwires and Software both and acts as an interface to various network for data communication. Problems in Implementation of Technology:- Ø Implementation of GSM technology requires a number of equipment. Many equipment need to be installed like tall towers. These towers are fixed at proper area in line of sight. Also satellites functionality also requires attention. Ø Installation of Several equipment and devices require huge amount of money. Thus GSM architecture is very costly. Ø Maintenance of equipment used in GSM is practically not affordable time and again. Ø There are several protocols applied in GSM Technology, resulting problem in implementation. Ø There is possibility of breaking into GSM networks that use cipher text-only cryptanalysis encrypted communication. These attacks are based on security flaws of the GSM protocols, and work whenever the mobile phone supports A5/2. Ø The available radio frequencies need to be re-used closer together and continuously within the network so that spectral efficiency can be unlimited. Ø There is huge consumption of power in GSM implementation, which is not convenient. Ø GSM is also not secure as the sent signal or message is not so much hard to be decoded. So the third party may avail of it somehow using some technology. ABOUT THE TECHNOLOGY GSM (Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Groupe Special Mobile) is the most widely used digital cellular technology for transmitting mobile voice and data services in the world. It uses SIM (SubscriberIdentityModule) cards, which acts as digital identity, and is tied to the cellular network by searching for cells towards the towers (bts) in the nearby location. GSM is a second-generation (2G) cell phone system used by over 3 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories. In over twenty years of development, GSM has been continuously upgraded to provide better signal, speech quality and thus fulfil the mass demands. It also facilitates to roam, switch carriers and the operators without replacement of handsets. 01-01-10 The GSM technology originally originated by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) in 1982 when it firstly created Group Special Mobile (GSM) for the purpose of designing a pan-European mobile technology. European Telecommunications Standardization Institute (ETSI) later in 1991 adopted the GSM standard. GSM technology was firstly commercially lunched in 1991 in Finland, although it has been for testing purposes since 1980. 01-01-5 Newer versions of the standard are much compatible with the original GSM system. For example,Release 97,the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) added the packet data capabilities to GSM technology. Release 99 introduced higher speed data transmission usingEnhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution(EDGE). It uses variation of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless telephone technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). Data is digitized and compressed and, sent down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. Most 2G GSM networks operates in the 900MHz or 1800MHz bands. It operates on four different frequencies worldwide. GSM calls are either based on data or voice. Voice calls use audio codecs called half-rate, full-rate and enhanced full-rate. Data calls can turn the cell phone into a modem operating at 9600 bps having ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates. GSM technology even keeps people in touch while roaming also as it home operators are having roaming collaboration with foreign operators. IMPORTANCE OF TECHNOLOGY GSM is the most popular, reliable and the fast growing wireless technology for mobile phones in the world. It has approximately covered the 89% share market of the global mobile telecom in more than 219 countries and territories with more than 3.8 billion people as per May 2009 study. Its signalling and speech channels being digital differs it from its and so pronounced as a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system. It also provides the integrated high-speed data, fax, paging, voice mail and short messages services (SMS) capabilities and thus offering communication to be secure, private and fraud prevented. Many operators provide access to ISDN services to transmit data fast. Several offer GPRS facility to connect to high speed data communication channel (9600 bps). Global GSM Growth GSM market share has grown at exponent rate over recent years. However the target to achieve 1 billion customers took 12 years (Feb 2004) but later it was a surprising fact that it crossed the 2 billion mark only in another 2.5 years (By June 2006) and 3 billion GSM customers in another less than 2 years. Now the Telecoms and Media hope to surpass 5 billion targets by 2013. GSM is the legacy network of the evolution to the third generation (3G) technologies Universal Mobile Telecommunication System, (UMTS) also known as WCDMA, and High Speed Packet Access (HSPA). Maximum Mobile phones manufacturer develop their products based on GSM technology and all mobile companies provide their customers GSM networks. The Social Impact of Mobile Telephony Mobile telephony is undoubted one of the most superb developments telecommunications industry. The number of subscribers is rapidly increasing in tremendous way. More and more people are being connected to the telecom. GSM technology has greatly affected the social life. The various operators have been proving a number of offers to fascinate their customers. Due to aspects like reliability, security, voice and data transmission facilities GSM is much popular among the users. People are shifting to wireless communication from their fixed phones. Rapid increase in GSM market Popularity Reasons of GSM Technology * Improved spectrum efficiency. * High speech quality. * International roaming. * Better signal quality. * Offer voice, data and fax. * Offer secure communication and privacy. * Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs). * Flexibility SIM. * High share market capture. * Low terminal and service cost. * ISDN compatibility. * Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) for data transmission. * Support for new services like VAS. Backbone for 3G and other evaluating technologies GSM customer growth in India Health Issues It is the recent report that use of GSM mobile technology poses Health Hazards. Its regular and continuous use for hours may create heath problems like irritations, allergies, headache, ears pain etc. It is fact proved by scientists that radio waves of frequencies that it utilises can create electric fieldsin human cells and brain. Long term exposure may have adverse health effects too. Many research institutions controlled by government and independent bodies are continuously studying over it. Also research results are being revived by ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection) and the WHO (World Health Organisation) at global level. Use of cellular phone is highly restricted to be turned off while in flight as the radio frequencies may interfere. The same case happens at hospitals as the radio signal may create interference with electronic medical devices at short rang or cause uneasiness among patients. While driving use of cell phone is advised to avoid and in petrol pumps as the radio waves used in GSM technology may cause interference. d> GSM SECURITY:- 1. PURPOSE OF USING GSM SECURITY:- As we know that security is the essential feature in any service. Hence, GSM network also follows certain level of security in the services which it provides. Hence, there are mainly two security purposes which are kept in mind when it is concerned of the GSM network:- First of all, to protect the Accessibility to the mobile services and secondly to prevent disclosure of any crucial information/data at the radio path to achieve the privacy regarding that particular data. 2. THE SECURITY FEATURES OF THE GSM SERVICES:- There are several features of the GSM service for the security of its customers. Some features are stated below: 1. Authentication is being provided to the registered customers only. 2. The process of encryption is being used for secure data transfer. 3. The identity of customer is being verified. 4. The cellular phones are useless without a SIM card. 5. A secret key Ki is being used to achieve authentication. 3. Representation of the GSM Security:- GSM security is represented in two ways:- a. Authentication b. Encryption A. Authentication: The process of authentication is being categorized in to various stages which are stated below:- 1. First of all an IMSI (International mobile subscriber Identity) is being send to the network by the mobile station. 2. After that the IMSI is being received by the network and the KI corresponding to that IMSI is found. 3. A 128 bit random number (RAND) gets generated by the corresponding network and is send to the mobile station through the medium of air. 4. Through the use of the algorithm A3, the network (AuC) and the MS (SIM) use KI and RAND to produce a signed result (SRES). 5. The SRES is being sent to the network by the MS. 6. For the validity purpose network performs the testing on the received SRES. B. Encryption: The process of encryption gets started by ciphering mode request (i.e.: secretly executed request) command from the GSM network. After receiving the request the process of encryption and decryption of data gets performed by the mobile station. Different key stream is involved in the encryption of each frame over the air traffic. Different key stream is generated for each frame as the A5algorithm which is used to encrypt the data is initialised with the KC and the number of the frame to be executed resulting in the generation of different key stream. The same KC gets executed as long as it does not get verified by the MSC (Mobile services switching Centre) through the MS(mobile station) which results in the generation of the new KC. The Authentication of MS is an optional process and is usually not performed in the beginning of a call. Hence it is assured that the KC will not get changed during a particular call. As it gets switched off IMSI (International mobile subscriber identity) gets stored by the mobile station on the SIM card to assure that is gets available when it is switched on again. In the hardware of the mobile phone the A5 algorithm gets executed as data is being encrypted and decrypted through the air. 4. The Algorithm used in the GSM Security: There are three algorithms which are used in the GSM security:- 1> A3: The MS Authentication Algorithm:- In the GSM model, A3 acts as the authentication algorithm. This algorithm generates a 32 bit output as it gets the RAND (128 bit random number) from the MSC (Mobile service switching Centre) and the secret key KI as input from the SIM. The size of KI and RAND is of 128 bits. The A3 algorithm is represented as a one-way hash function. This function produces an output which is of fixed length as a random input is given to it. A COMP 128 algorithm is used for the A3 algorithm by every GSM operator in the world. This algorithm acts as the reference algorithm for the various tasks which has been pointed out by the GSM association. 2> A8, The ciphering Key Generation Algorithm: In the GSM network, A8 algorithm acts the session key algorithm. The A8 algorithm generates 64 bit output by taking two 128 bit input. The output generated is 64 bit session key KC. COMP128 acts the reference algorithm for the A8 algorithm also as it is there in the A3 algorithm. At one run, COMP128 generates both the session key KC as well as the SRES response. 3> A5, the stream-ciphering algorithm: In this algorithm encryption of data over the air occurs. For secure data, there are three possibilities in the case of GSM; it includes the A5/0, A5/1 and the A5/2 algorithm. This algorithm came into existence because the GSM standard was designed for Europe and as per the export regulations it did not allow the implementation of the technology outside Europe. f> Advantage of GSM Services:- Following are the Advantage of GSM service: - 1>First of all the GSM network is fully developed which means that it contains stability with proper features and services. Hence it has over 450 million subscribers worldwide. 2> The other advantage of GSM network is that it contains better voice quality and low- cost alternatives to make calls, such as Short message service (SMS) . In the case of GSM network the quality of voice is fine inside the buildings. 3) Another advantage of this service is that the equipments are easily available from the vendors who execute the following service. 4> GSM services provide the roaming facility to its customers so that they can use the service anywhere in the world. 5) GSM networks provide higher talk time due to its pulse nature of transmission and its ability to use routers. 6) GSM provides the facility of International Roaming which is highly beneficial in context to its customers. 7> The presence of Smart Cards which acts as subscriber Identity Modules through which encryption of data occurs in a secure manner which is highly advantageous with respect to commercial background. 8> lastly the common advantage of the GSM service is that it provides the user the freedom to choose a mobile set of his/her choice and the SIM card is also being selected by user of their choice. They also have the option of making the changes to both the equipments accordingly. Disadvantage of GSM Services:- The GSM service has following Disadvantages:- 1> The first disadvantage is that the algorithms which are being used in this service for the security purpose is not available to the public. 2> In the GSM service only Access security is being provided and the different communications occurs only in a fixed network. 3> The major disadvantage of the GSM service is that it lacks the access to the American market. 4> For the usage of this service, the user needs the requirement of higher power and the coordination between cell to cell. 5> The network coverage of this technology is not better in the rural areas as compared to its competitor service of the CDMA technology. Reference: http://sawaal.ibibo.com/computers-and-technology/what-advantages-gsm-technology-3g-technology-245344.html http://www.connectindia.in/posts/list/gsm-what-are-the-advantages-of-gsm-technology-how-it-works-910021.htm http://www.edaboard.com/ftopic200835.html http://in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070202053500AA6OrQt http://www.gsm-security.net/papers/securityingsm.pdf http://cryptome.org/jya/gsm061088.htm

Drinks That Cause Tooth Decay Health Essay

Drinks That Cause Tooth Decay Health Essay The content in the drinks that causes tooth decay is the acidic content in our food and beverages. In general, drinks with a pH below 5.0 5.7 have been known to trigger dental erosion. Previous scientific research findings have helped to warn consumers that the pH level in beverages could lead to tooth erosion, the breakdown of tooth structure caused by the acid and leads to tooth decay. The acidity level in popular beverages that we consume everyday contributes to the erosion of enamel. Dental erosion is the irreversible loss of a tooth due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin. There is generally widespread ignorance of the damaging effects of acid erosion; this is particularly the case with erosion due to fruit juices, because they tend to be seen as healthy. Erosion is found initially in the enamel and if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying structure of a tooth. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports link erosion to excessive consumption of drinks, frui t juices such as orange juice (which contain citric acid) and carbonated drinks (citric and phosphoric acid). This essay examines scientific research of the issue to determine if, in fact, acidic drinks do cause tooth decay. As part of my research, I conducted my own experiment, using human teeth and different types of drinks. After considering the results I obtained, as well as other research, I conclude that acid contain in the drinks is the cause of tooth decay. The acid content will slowly dissolve the enamel of the teeth. It dissolves the calcium molecules from the teeth surface, thus the teeth will erode. This essay will examine the validity of acid content in the drinks as the real culprit to tooth decay, evaluate the extend of the damage and recommendations for proper tooth care. Introduction Tooth decay is the loss of enamel from the tooth surface. When sugary drinks are consumed by bacteria in the mouth, it turns the sugar into acids. These acids corrode the enamel of the teeth, which leads to cavities. Dental erosion is the irreversible loss of a tooth to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacteria origin. Tooth decay is the most common chronic disease for children aged 5 17 although it is only recently that it is recognized as a dental health problem. There is generally widespread ignorance of the damaging effects of acid erosion, this particularly due to fruit juices, because they are perceived to be healthy. Erosion is initially found in the enamel and if left unchecked, may proceed to the underlying structure of a tooth. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports linked erosion to excessive consumption of sweet drinks, carbonated drinks and fruit juices. Previous scientific research findings have help to warn consumers that the pH (potential of hydrogen) level bel ow pH 5.0 5.7 may initiate dental erosion. The consumption behaviour plays a major role in oral health. However, public awareness on dental erosion is not high. Sources of acids can be endogenous or exogenous, and erosive intensity is modified by quality and quantity of saliva. Acidic beverages are the most common extrinsic factors that cause dental erosion (tooth decay). Because of these identified factors, I am interested to do this research to clear my curiosity. Basically this experiment is done to support my hypothesis. The experiment consists of gathering extracted human teeth of various shapes and sizes, disinfection and the submission in the selected beverages. Duration of 5 months is needed to complete the whole experiment. With the findings, I will be convinced and able to convince that acidic beverages cause tooth decay. Review of Literature Lemon Juice The juice extracted from fresh lemon is used as refreshing beverage. People go for lemon juice because they are able to cool down our body temperature. This is why when people are sick, they are advised to drink more citric juices so that the body system can be cooled down and recover the patients. Besides that, lemon juice also has high content of Vitamin C which is essential to our body immune system. 2.2 Coke Coke is a very famous carbonated drink. Despite the fizzy feeling and sweet tasting of the drink, it is actually one of the main contributors to tooth decay. Coke is a very sweet beverage making it able to promote the growth of oral bacteria, which is known as Streptococcus mutan  [1]  as the sugar contained in coke can feed the bacteria. Coke contains phosphoric acid and has the ability to corrode the tooth enamel. Plus, coke can stain the teeth and forms caries on the surface of the teeth  [2]  . 2.3 Coffee Coffee causes calcium loss in our bone mass, which leads to the excretion of calcium from our bones, doesnt matter which part of our body it is. This causes the thinning of the teeth which in turn, causes the teeth to become weak and is vulnerable to corrosion or break. Furthermore, coffee is also mostly acidic, which also causes tooth erosion, then leads to tooth decay  [3]  . 2.4 Energy Drink Energy drinks can also cause tooth decay. The pH level of the drink can lead to tooth erosion and hypersensitivity. It causes the breakdown of the tooth structure. In energy drinks, it is not the acidity of the drink that cause tooth erosion, but it is the buffering capacity of the drink that corrodes the tooth. Buffering capacity is the ability to neutralize acid  [4]  . Energy drinks have high buffering capacity, making them to have the strongest potential to cause tooth erosion. 2.5 Sugar Solution Sugar is scientifically known as sucrose, a sweet tasting organic compound, derived from glucose and fructose. Streptococcus mutans which live in our oral cavity will react with the sugar and form lactic acid which will also causes tooth erosion. Sucrose will be converted into dextran which favors the bacteria to be attracted to the teeth. Dextran is the food for the oral bacteria and lactic acid is their waste product  [5]  . Therefore, those bacteria will just stick to the teeth. This will make it difficult to remove those bacteria  [6]  . 2.6 Tap Water Tap water will not cause tooth decay as it does not have any effects on our teeth. Tap water is fluoride-enhanced, and it serves the purpose of making the teeth stronger and protects the teeth, making it an important teeth-protecting agent. Therefore, tap water will not stand the possibility of causing tooth decay. 2.7 Tooth Anatomy As the function of the teeth is to bite and chew food, hence, they are the first step in the digestion of food. The long, sharp canine teeth tear up food. The wide, flat molars grind and mash up food. Teeth also help us say certain sounds. Human have two sets of teeth in their lives, the primary teeth (also called the baby, milk or deciduous teeth) and the permanent teeth. Children have 20 primary teeth; they are replaced by the permanent teeth by about age 13. Adult have 32 permanent teeth. 7 Diagram of a tooth anatomy 3.0 Hypothesis Acid in drinks is the cause of tooth decay. Acidic drinks such as orange juice and lemon juice, the acid content will slowly dissolve the calcium in the teeth, corroding the enamel. The process starts from the surface of the teeth, towards the inner structure of the teeth. Method Development Planning In order to carry out this research successfully, materials have been carefully chosen to give a more promising and accurate result. Materials were carefully studied through several researches and readings from various useful sources. For my research, I have studied and researched on drinks such as lemon juice, coke, coffee, energy drink (100-Plus), sugar solution and tap water. The choice of tap water in my experiment is because of the neutral pH and fluoride enhancement. I have been studying about the compositions of the drinks and how they actually contributed to tooth decay. This experiment was carried out in the Health Laboratory of a Government Health Clinic in Sibu. All the research work was done during each of my college holidays. I was fortunate because I was consented to use the apparatus like digital weighing scale, microscope and more. All the extracted human teeth were supplied by the dental clinic with consent granted by the dental officer. I was also being taught the proper way of disinfecting the teeth with a proper disinfectant by the health staff in the laboratory. The main reason I chose to do my experiment here is because of the proper equipment available. Besides, I can also handle the teeth in a correct way to prevent myself from the bacteria. During the planning stage, Ive done a thorough research in choosing the appropriate drinks to be tested in my experiment. I chose only those drinks is because they are some of the popular drinks and are consumed the most nowadays. Besides that, these drinks are easily available in the market, regardless whether it is in the urban or rural area. And since I am studying of the effects of these drinks on human, so children can be a good subject for me because these drinks are mostly consumed by children. These drinks are also very affordable, so there wont be any financial problem in carrying out this experiment. As for the teeth, various types of teeth were used in this experiment. However, no specific tooth is being used due to the unavailability. These teeth range from Incisors, Canine, premolar to molar. Tooth that is with minimal erosion noted is selected for this experiment as no perfect human tooth is being extracted and readily available for such an experiment. 30 human teeth are used in this experiment. Only 30 teeth are used because it is quite difficult to get human teeth as human teeth are really dirty and dentists usually dispose them off immediately due to hygienic reason. Besides that, as for the solutions, 200ml of each solution is used. The same amount of solutions are also used each and everytime when I change the solutions in each beaker, once a week. This experiment takes approximately 5 months in order to obtain a more significant and accurate result. Initially the duration of the experiment was only 10 weeks as planned; however no significant change can be seen. Therefore, the duration of the experiment was extended to 5 months instead because the teeth required a longer period of time to witness a significant change in the structure of every tooth. The experiment was carried out at room temperature, which is approximately at. This is because oral bacteria can function well at such temperature, which may contribute to a more accurate result. The experiment was done, with permission, for using the equipment at a Clinic laboratory of a Healthcare facility in Sibu. All the extracted teeth for this study were taken from the Dental Clinic of that facility with each tooth weighs between 0.510 gram and 2.280 gram depending on various types of teeth (molar, premolar, canine and incisor) extracted and the weight of these extracted teeth. After being thoroughly washed and disinfected (to prevent any possible infections during the process of this experiment), specimens (extracted teeth) were alternately immersed, 5s, in each different types of drinks place in a labelled beaker ranging from A to F as follows: Beaker A Lemon juice Beaker B Coke Beaker C Coffee Beaker D 100 Plus Beaker E Sugar Solution Beaker F Tap Water This study was done for duration of 5 months. This is to enable me to note significant changes. This is necessary in order for me to chart and document accurately the gradually changes to these teeth. A shorter duration will not show any significant changes which could be documented. The first reading will only be done after 1 month post immersion in each of the marked beaker filled with the experimented drinks. These readings include the documentation of the colour, contour (mass) and the weight of each tooth after which at the end of my study I would be able to determine which of the 6 beakers show significant changes in the tooth mass. The inspection of each beaker will be done monthly for the next subsequent 5 months. Beaker A (lemon juice) Beaker B (Coke) Beaker C (coffee) Beaker D (100 Plus) Beaker E (sugar water) Beaker F (tap water) In the meantime, a clean 200ml beaker was used to measure 200ml of lemon juice and the beaker is labelled accordingly. The pH of each drink is being measured to determine their acidity level. pH Chart from the journal of dental hygiene is being used as a guideline for my experiment. The diagram below show the various pH levels of frequently consumed foods and drinks below pH 5.0 5.7 which may initiate dental erosion. This step was repeated to measure out the same amount (200ml) of Coke, coffee, 100 Plus, sugar water and tap water. In the experiment, tap water acts as a control. After that, 30 teeth of almost the same size were cleaned and disinfected thoroughly with antiseptic disinfectant. The teeth must be clean and are without plague in order to detect new changes to the mass and contour of the teeth. Then, the teeth were dried with a hair dryer to ascertain that the teeth are totally dry and no residual water detected. This is done to make sure that the result will not be temper ed. The initial mass of each tooth was also weighted and the measurements were recorded. After the measuring processes, each of the teeth was immersed into their respective beakers ranging from beaker A to beaker F, 5 teeth per solution per beaker due to the limited amount of human teeth available. Those teeth must be immersed completely in their respective solution. After that, those 6 beakers were left in the laboratory under standard room temperature and humidity. After a month, every tooth in the 6 beakers was individually checked and the changes which had taken place on the surface of the teeth were observed and documented with each of the tooth mass measured. Then these teeth are re-immersed with fresh drinks (to ensure the potency of these drinks does not decline) for the subsequent month documentation. This process will be carried out at a monthly interval with fresh solution to detect any changes occurring to the mass and contour of the teeth, be it acute or gradual. At the end of the experiment which lasted for 5 months, the teeth were removed from each of the solutions and they were cleaned. After cleaning process, the teeth were dried using a hair dryer until each of them was totally dry. The final mass of each tooth was weighted and all the measurements were recorded as shown in the table below. At last, the data collected, which is the final mass (quantitative data) and the observation on the teeth (qualitative data) were tabulated for analysis. 8 Diagram of the pH level of frequently consumed food and drinks below pH 5.0-5.7 may initiate dental erosion. 5.0 Materials and Procedure 5.1 Materials Materials Quantity Extracted tooth 30 Lemon juice 200ml Coke 200ml Coffee 200ml 100 Plus 200ml Sugar solution 200ml Tap Water 200ml 5.2 Apparatus Apparatus Quantity 200ml beaker 6 Forceps 1 Electronic balance 1 Magnifying glass 1 Hair dryer 1 Microscope 1 5.3 Variables Variables Independent variable Different types of drinks (lemon juice, coke, coffee, 100 plus, sugar water, tap water) Dependent variable Condition of the teeth Constant variable Volume of drinks used Type of teeth used Temperature of the drinks Duration of the experiment Number of teeth used 5.4 Methodology Prepare 6 clean and empty beakers. Label all the 6 beakers with alphabets, ranging from A to F. Beaker A Lemon juice Beaker B Coke Beaker C Coffee Beaker D 100 Plus Beaker E Sugar solution Beaker F Distilled water In the mean time, use a clean 200ml beaker, measure 200ml of lemon juice. Repeat step (3) with coke, coffee, 100 Plus, sugar water and distilled water. The distilled water acts as the control experiment. Then, clean 30 teeth of the same size thoroughly. Make sure that there is no plaque on them. Dry the teeth with a hair dryer. Weight the initial mass of the teeth. Record the measurements. Immerse the each of the teeth into respective beakers. Label the teeth with numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 for easy recognition. Make sure that the tooth is completely immersed in their respective solution. Leave the 6 beakers in the laboratory with a standard surrounding temperature. After 24 hours, check on the tooth in the 6 beakers and observe the changes which are taken place on the surface of the teeth. Remove the teeth from the solutions and clean them. Dry the teeth with a hair dryer and make sure that they are totally dry. Weight the final mass of the teeth. Record the measurement. Tabulate the data. Data Collection 6.1 Quantitative Data Drinks pH Value Lemon Juice 2.10 Coke 2.30 Coffee 4.95 100 Plus 3.78 Sugar Solution 7.00 Tap Water 7.00 The table shows the pH level of each drink for this study. Type of Drinks pH Value () Month Mass of Teeth/mg () Tooth 1 Tooth 2 Tooth 3 Tooth 4 Tooth 5 Lemon Juice 2.10 1 2.37 2.68 1.80 2.22 1.05 2 2.37 2.67 1.79 2.21 1.04 3 2.35 2.65 1.78 2.20 1.03 4 2.33 2.63 1.75 2.18 1.01 5 2.29 2.60 1.72 2.14 0.98 Coke 2.30 1 1.82 2.33 2.06 1.80 2.46 2 1.81 2.32 2.06 1.80 2.44 3 1.79 2.30 2.04 1.78 2.43 4 1.75 2.28 2.01 1.76 2.41 5 1.75 2.26 1.98 1.74 2.39 Coffee 4.95 1 1.55 1.74 2.34 2.26 1.37 2 1.55 1.73 2.33 2.26 1.36 3 1.54 1.73 2.32 2.25 1.36 4 1.52 1.71 2.31 2.25 1.35 5 1.50 1.69 2.29 2.24 1.33 100 Plus 3.78 1 2.67 2.64 2.75 1.30 2.14 2 2.66 2.63 2.75 1.30 2.12 3 2.64 2.61 2.73 1.28 2.10 4 2.62 2.60 2.71 1.25 2.08 5 2.60 2.58 2.69 1.23 2.06 Sugar Solution 7.00 1 1.37 1.46 2.06 1.47 2.33 2 1.37 1.45 2.04 1.46 2.32 3 1.35 1.45 2.03 1.44 2.30 4 1.34 1.44 2.01 1.43 2.29 5 1.33 1.43 2.00 1.42 2.28 Tap Water 7.00 1 2.65 2.43 2.86 1.43 2.63 2 2.65 2.43 2.86 1.43 2.63 3 2.65 2.43 2.86 1.43 2.62 4 2.64 2.43 2.85 1.43 2.62 5 2.63 2.42 2.84 1.43 2.61 The table shows the mass of the teeth throughout the experiment. 6.2 Qualitative Data Type of Drinks Month Colour Contour Mass Lemon Juice 1 No change No change No change 2 No change No change Slight decrease 3 Yellowish Microscopic flaking and softening of enamel Slight decrease 4 Yellowish brown Erosion noted Significant decrease 5 Brown Erosion noted Consistent decrease Coke 1 No change No change No change 2 No change No change Slight decrease 3 Yellowish No change Slight decrease 4 Yellowish brown Erosion noted Significant decrease 5 Brown Erosion noted Consistent decrease Coffee 1 No change No change No change 2 Yellowish No change Slight decrease 3 Yellowish brown Microscopic flaking and softening of enamel Slight decrease 4 Brown Erosion noted Significant decrease 5 Brown Erosion noted Consistent decrease 100 Plus 1 No change No change No change 2 No change No change Slight decrease 3 Yellowish Microscopic flaking and softening of enamel Slight decrease 4 Yellowish Erosion noted Significant decrease 5 Yellowish brown Erosion noted Consistent decrease Sugar Solution 1 No change No change No change 2 No change No change No change 3 Yellowish No change Slight decrease 4 Yellowish brown Erosion noted Significant decrease 5 Yellowish brown Erosion noted Consistent decrease Tap Water 1 No change No change No change 2 No change No change No change 3 No change No change Slight decrease 4 No change No change Slight decrease 5 Yellowish No change Slight decrease The table shows the observations obtained throughout the experiment. 7.0 Data Processing Analysis 7.1 Data Processing 7.1.1 Calculation for the difference in mass of the teeth. Formula: Difference in mass =Mass in month 1- Mass in month 5 Example, The 5th month (lemon juice), tooth 1: Difference = = *Same calculation applied to others. Type of Drinks Difference in mass/mg () Tooth 1 Tooth 2 Tooth 3 Tooth 4 Tooth 5 Lemon Juice 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 Coke 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 Coffee 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.04 100 Plus 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.08 Sugar solution 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.05 Tap water 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 The table shows the difference in mass of each tooth throughout the 5 months for each drink. 7.1.2 Calculation for the uncertainties of difference in mass Formula: Uncertainty of the initial mass + uncertainty of the final mass Example, Therefore, difference in mass for tooth 1 in lemon juice: Difference = *Same calculation applied to others. 7.1.3 Calculation for the average difference. Formula: Example, For lemon juice: *Same calculation applied to others. Type of Drinks Average difference in mass/mg Lemon juice 0.08 Coke 0.07 Coffee 0.05 100 Plus 0.07 Sugar solution 0.05 Tap water 0.01 The table shows the average difference in mass of the teeth in each drink. 7.1.4 Calculations for the Standard deviation of the average difference in mass. Due to the complexity of the calculation, the standard deviation is calculated by using the Graphic Display Calculator (GDC). Steps: Press the STAT button. Press the ENTER button. List the data (the average difference in mass of the 5 teeth per solution) in one of the column. Press the STAT button. Press > button so that the CALC image on the screen is highlighted. Press the ENTER button. Beside the 1 Var Stats words on the screen, type the 2ND button and the name of the column that contains the data (name of the column used in step 3). Press the ENTER button. The standard deviation is equal to. The above steps are repeated to calculate the standard deviation for the teeth in the rest of the drinks. Example, For lemon juice, Key in the difference in mass of the 5 teeth in the 1st column. Based on the steps above, the GDC automatically calculated the standard deviation, which is,. *Same calculation applied to others. Type of Drinks Average Difference in Mass/mgStandard Deviation Lemon juice 0.080.004 Coke 0.070.007 Coffee 0.050.007 100 Plus 0.070.008 Sugar Solution 0.050.011 Tap water 0.010.009 The table shows the average difference in mass of the teeth with the standard deviation. 7.1.5 Calculation of the rate of reaction between the teeth and the drinks. Formula: Calculations: Lemon Juice Rate of Reaction = = Coke Rate of Reaction = = Coffee Rate of Reaction = = 100 Plus Rate of Reaction = = Sugar Solution Rate of Reaction = = Tap Water Rate of Reaction = = 7.1.6 Calculation for the standard error of the rate of reaction. Formula: Where, = uncertainty of the mass = rate of reaction Example: Lemon juice Coke Coffee 100 Plus Sugar Solution Tap Water Type of Drinks pH Value Duration of Experiment/ months Average Difference in Mass/ mg Rate of Reaction/ mg/day Lemon juice 2.10 5 0.080.004 Coke 2.30 5 0.070.007 Coffee 4.95 5 0.050.007 100 Plus 3.78 5 0.070.008 Sugar solution 7.00 5 0.050.011 Tap water 7.00 5 0.010.009 The table shows the summary of the calculations in the experiment. 7.2 Data Presentation 7.3 Statistical Analysis 7.3.1 T-test lemon juice and sugar solution. 1st Month: t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means Variable 1 Variable 2 Mean 2.024 1.738 Variance 0.39683 0.18467 Observations 5 5 Pearson Correlation -0.933627334 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.286 df 4 t Stat 2.38114E-16 P(T 0.5 t Critical one-tail 2.131846786 P(T 1 t Critical two-tail 2.776445105 To do a T-test, I came up with two hypotheses, which are as followed: The difference between the average mass of the teeth in lemon juice and sugar solution for the 1st month is not significant. The difference between the average mass of the teeth in lemon juice and sugar solution for the 1st month is significant. From the result of T-test generated by Microsoft Excel 2010, the value of is and the value of is. Thus, . Therefore, is accepted and is rejected. This means that from the T-test, the difference between the average mass of the teeth in lemon juice and sugar solution for the 1st month is not significant. This is because all the teeth used in this experiment have an average mass initially. 7.3.2 T-test between lemon juice and sugar solution 2nd Month: t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means Variable 1 Variable 2 Mean 2.016 1.728 Variance 0.39858 0.18127 Observations 5 5 Pearson Correlation -0.938299713 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.288 df 4

LOVE BUG Essay -- essays research papers

The â€Å"Love Bug† Virus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The virus dubbed the â€Å"love bug† started to rapidly spread throughout the world on May 4, 2000. According to David Ruppe (May 5,2000) in an article on the ABCNEWS.com website, The virus came in the form of â€Å"ILOVEYOU† in the subject line, which seemed harmless and greets people in a friendly way. They have no idea that they are in for a big surprise as they opened their email. The message inside reads: â€Å"kindly check the attached LOVELETTER coming from me† (Ruppe, May 5,2000). A 22-year-old college dropout was arrested in the Philippines as the author of this virus (anonymous, August 21,2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When the attachment contained in the email was opened, the virus rapidly proliferated by automatically sending copies to everyone listed in the user’s email address book. Experts have concluded that this was the cause of the rapid slow down of servers around the world. Some of the servers have been so severely overloaded that they have shut down. This in turn has been preventing other email from being se3nt (anonymous September 5, 2000). As Hillebrand reports, â€Å"The Head of corp0orate communications at the computer Security Company Sophos Anit- Virus, Graham Cluely says that companies have been bombarded by this virus and have begun to switch off email systems†. Cluely also concluded that one of the reasons that the virus is so popular because it makes a tug on your emotions, love can get you into trouble (Hillebrand May 15,2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this certain case there are several categories of Cybercrime that this type of crime represents. As written by Casey, the first one being that the computer was a target. This virus was supposed to gather information once it was opened and send back information to its owner. This included searching for login names and passwords. This would enable the owner to use any of the victim’s Internet accounts to surf the net for free. (Ruppe May5, 2000). The second cybercrime category is the computer as the instrumentality of the crime. Since the computer was the main focus of the crime and was used to implement it. The third and final cybercrime category is that the crime is associated with the prevalence of computers. This one is because it allowed the theft of the components of the login names as well as the passwords. This could be cl... ...o the fact that the professor was not afraid to come forward and say â€Å"hey I might know this guy†. I did not like however the fact that the Philippine government had not law governing this type of crime. These crimes affect everyone in the world not just down the street or another state. However since this has come to light the E-Commerce Act has passed into law in the Philippines and carries a fine of at least $2,300 plus three jail sentences. The credit card legislation has much lesser penalties. This Act however is not retroactive (Hillebrand May 15, 2000). Cited Page Casey, Eoghan. (2001) Pg. 17. Digital Evidence and Computer Crime, Forensic Science computers and the Internet. London, Academic Press Casey, Eoghan. (2001) pg.167. Digital Evidence and Computer Crime, Forensic Science computers and the Internet. London, Academic Press Charges Dismissed Philippines Drop Charges In â€Å" Love Bug† Virus Case. (August 21, 2000). Associated Press, ABCNEWS.com Hillebrand, Mary. (May 15,2000) Nations Gather To Target Cybercrime. E-Commerce Times. Revisiting the Case (Sept 5, 2000) Associated Press, ABCNEWS.com Ruppe, David. (May 5, 2000) â€Å"Love Bug† Travels Around the Globe. ABCNEWS.com

Reader Response Essay - Joyce Carol Oatess Where Are You Going, Where

Reader Response Essay - Joyce Carol Oates's Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? As I began reading â€Å"Where are you going, where have you been?† by Joyce Carol Oates I found myself relating the experiences of Connie, the girl in the story, to my own personal experiences. She spoke of going to a friend’s house and having her friend’s father drive them to the shopping mall so that they could walk around and socialize or go see a movie. I found that this related very closely with my own experiences of being fifteen years old because it was always someone else’s parents driving my friends and I to the movies or to the mall. However, as I continued to read the story I began to wonder if maybe Connie’s life was not in any way parallel to my own. I have a younger sister where she has an older sister, but that is where the similarities end. Her mother is always telling her that she should be more like June, her older sister. It seemed to me that June living with her parents at her age was unusual, but the fact that she seemed to enjoy this and was always doing things to h...

Chaucers The General Prologue Essay -- Chaucer General Prologue Essay

Chaucer's The General Prologue Chaucer-the pilgrim starts out â€Å"The General Prologue† with detailed descriptions of each pilgrim as he views them. When Chaucer-the pilgrim arrives at the Pardoner, he becomes very focused on his physical appearance and what is seems to be missing. There is something odd about this Pardoner and Chaucer-the pilgrim can’t seem to grasp just what that is. He describes that the Pardoner is all on fire to do is job, just arriving from Rome (Bretful of pardon, come from Rome al hoot). However, his eagerness to Pardon those for God does not help his physical appearance in any respect. Chaucer-the pilgrim describes his voice as that of a high-pitched goat and points out that he has no facial hair and will presumably never have any, as his face is just as smooth as if he had recently shaved (A vois he hadde as small as hath a goot; / No beerd hadde he, ne nevere sholde have; / As smoothe it was as it were late yshave). Chaucer-the pilgrim is setting up in the reader’ s mind that of a prepubescent boy, yet as the reader knows there are no children on the jour...

Balagtasan Essay

The Dynamic Crust, Earthquakes and the Earth’s Interior Why is the Earth’s crust described as being dynamic? Crust- solid rock outer zone of Earth The crust is part of the lithosphere. The Earth’s crust is dynamic which means constantly changing. Earthquakes Volcanoes Crustal movements along fault zones Other evidence indicates that parts of the Earth’s crust have been moving to different locations for billions of years. Describe pieces of evidence that suggest minor changes in the Earth’s crust. Displaced & Deformed Rock Strata Sedimentary rocks appear to form in horizontal layers. However, observations of the Earth’s surface indicate that the original formations of rock have changed through past movements. Tilting Earth movement resulting in a change in the position of rock layers, â€Å"rocks at an angle† Folded Strata Bend in the rock layers produced during the mountain building process Faulting Movement of rock along a crack (fault) in the crust Displaced Fossils Displaced means â€Å"moved.† Marine fossils- remains or imprints of once living ocean organisms such as coral, fish, etc. found in sedimentary rock Marine fossils found in layers of sedimentary rock in mountains, often thousands of feet above sea level. These marine fossils found at high elevation suggest past uplift of rock strata. Sinking or settling of rock strata Rock layers that have been moved. Horizontal Displacement (Faulting) Earth shifts sideways along a transform fault in the crust Vertical Displacement (Faulting) Portion of Earth’s surface is either uplifted or subsides along a fault or crack. Benchmark Permanent cement or brass marker in ground indicating a measured elevation. Isostasy Condition of balance or equilibrium in Earth’s crust. Since the upper mantle acts like a very dense fluid, the crustal plates float on top of it. Any change in one part of the crust is offset by a corresponding change in another part of the crust. Example of Isostasy If a piece of crust loses some of its material due to erosion, it becomes lighter and floats higher in the mantle. When the eroded material gets deposited, the crust is weighted down causing that area to sink lower into the mantle. Another isostatic example. The deposition of 2 miles thick ice on NY during a glacial ice age caused the area to subside slightly. This forced other areas to rise higher in response to the settling under the ice. Later after the ice receded or melted, the region responded with gradual uplift causing minor seismic activity or earthquakes. Give examples of crustal activity and explain where the zones of crustal activity are located. Areas of Crustal Activity Crustal activities such as earthquakes and volcanoes occur for the most part in specific zones or regions of the Earth. These regions are usually along the borders of continents and oceans. These zones mark boundaries or edges of large pieces of the Earth’s crust called crustal boundaries. ESRT p.5 What is an earthquake? Explain the difference between an epicenter and a focus of an earthquake. Describe properties of the 3 types of earthquake waves and tell the difference between a seismograph and a seismogram. I. Earthquakes Sudden trembling or shaking of ground usually caused by movement along a break or a fault releasing built up stress When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves are created and move out in all directions from the focus or point of origin. The earthquake’s focus or point of origin is usually deep below the Earth’s surface. The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter. Describe properties of the 3 types of earthquake waves and tell the difference between a seismograph and a seismogram. II. Earthquake Waves Seismograph: Instrument that detects and records seismic waves. Earthquakes generate several kinds of seismic waves that can be detected by a seismograph. 3 types of seismic waves are p, s, & l waves. L waves Long waves Do not pass through the Earth. Ripple along the surface of the Earth Create the damage associated with earthquakes P waves Primary waves Also called compressional because they cause the material through which they pass to vibrate back and forth (compress) in the same direction as the wave is traveling. Called primary because they move quickly through the Earth with a greater velocity than secondary waves and therefore are the first waves to reach a distant location. S waves Secondary waves Also called shear waves because they cause the material through which they pass to vibrate at right angles (up & down) to the direction in which the wave is traveling III. Velocities of Waves When traveling in the same material, primary waves travel at a greater velocity than secondary waves. So a seismograph will read the primary waves before the secondary waves arrive. A single seismogram showing the arrival times of p & s waves may be used to determine the distance to the earthquake and its time of origin. The greater the difference in arrival times of the primary and secondary waves, the greater the distance to the earthquake epicenter. Finding the Distance to an Earthquake’s Epicenter To find out how far an epicenter was away from a location, a seismograph reading or seismogram is necessary that shows the arrival of both p and s waves. Determining the Exact Location of an Earthquake’s Epicenter Epicenter location is found by the comparison of differences in travel time of p & s seismic waves. Knowing the separation time between arrival of both p & s waves gives the distance to the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the earthquake called the epicenter. Since only the distance to epicenter and not direction is known, a circle is drawn with the radius equal to the distance. The epicenter is on the circle. To find the actual location of the epicenter you must find the distance from 3 different seismograph stations. Why not 2? Draw 3 circles around the 3 seismograph stations and where they intersect is the earthquake’s epicenter. The earthquake occurred at a point somewhere below the epicenter and that internal point is called the focus. Scientists wanting to improve accuracy of finding the true epicenter will find the distance from more than 3 seismograph stations. Compare and contrast the 2 scales for determining the strength of an earthquake. a) The Modified Mercalli Scale Based upon the damage inflicted by an earthquake. This intensity scale ranges from I to XII with I being felt by few people to XII resulting in total devastation. Modified Mercalli Scale Continued Although this scale is still used, it is not very precise. Why? Damage inflicted by earthquakes depends on many factors besides the strength of the earthquake such as location, type of land, building design & structure, etc. b) The Richter Scale A Magnitude scale used to describe the amount of energy released by an earthquake. Richter scale magnitudes range from 0 to 9. Each number step up the scale indicates a release of 32 times more energy than the previous step. Earthquakes that are less than 2.5 are not usually felt by people. Approximately 20 major earthquakes in the magnitude 7.0-7.9 occur every year and each 5-10 years an earthquake of 8.0 or more will devastate a portion of Earth. Give examples of dangers to humans from volcanic and earthquake activity. Dangers to Humans from Earthquakes and Volcanoes Tell at least 4 of these hazards. Fires (Ruptured gas or power lines) Collapsing buildings/Falling Debris Broken bridges and roads Tsunamis (Seismic Sea Waves) Lava flows melt and burn Volcanic ash & poisonous gases make it difficult to breathe Large submarine (under water) earthquakes or those that occur along a coastline may result in tsunamis or seismic sea waves. Describe differences between p and s wave transmission through the Earth and how it creates a shadow zone. VII. Transmission of Earthquake Waves The velocity of an earthquake wave varies according to density of the material through which it is traveling. The greater the density of the material, the greater the velocity. As seismic waves travel through materials of different densities, the velocity of the seismic waves will change. This change in velocity of the wave causes the wave to be bent or refracted. Since the density of the Earth gradually increases with depth, seismic waves tend to increase in their velocity and continually refract (bend) as they travel down into the Earth. Difference in P and S Wave Transmission Compressional or p waves are transmitted through all phases of matter; solid, liquid or gas. However, shear or s waves are only transmitted through solids. This difference provides valuable information for scientists about the composition and interior structure of the Earth. S waves that penetrate the Earth to the depth of the outer core disappear. Since these waves are not transmitted by the outer core, the material of the outer core is assumed to be liquid. Earthquakes generate p & s waves that move out from the earthquake through the Earth in all directions. Seismographs that are located within 102 degrees from the epicenter record both p & s waves. Those seismograph stations that are farther away than 102o do not record any s waves because they are not transmitted through the core. A band that runs approximately 102o to 143o away from the epicenter records neither p nor s waves. Describe a model of the Earth’s crust and interior. Describe characteristics of both the crust and interior. Crust & Interior Properties There are 4 major Earth zones, three solid ones and one liquid. The 3 solid zones are the crust, mantle and inner core. The only liquid zone is the outer core. See ESRT p.10 Crustal Thickness The crust of the Earth compared to other zones is relatively thin, only a few kilometers in average depth. The average thickness of the continental crust is greater than the average thickness of the oceanic crust. Crustal Composition The continental crust is composed mainly of felsic igneous rock like granite that is low in density. The oceanic crust is composed mainly of mafic igneous rock like basalt that is high in density. Interior Structure Crust sits on top of mantle. Mantle accounts for the greatest part of the volume of the Earth. The crust-mantle boundary is called the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or the Moho. Below the mantle is the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. Interior Composition Evidence from the behavior of seismic waves and metallic meteorites suggests that the inner portion of the Earth is a high density combination of the metallic elements iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). Characteristics of Earth’s Interior The density, temperature and pressure of the Earth’s interior increases with depth. (ESRT p.10). The density ranges from 2.7g/cm3 for the continental crust and 3.0g/cm3 for the oceanic crust to 12.7 g/cm3-13.0g/cm3 for the inner core. Compare theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. Give evidence that support the idea that continents have moved. I. Plate Tectonics Theory Theory that Earth’s lithosphere is made of a number of solid plates that move in relation to each other. ESRT p.5 Continental Drift Theory that continents are now, as well as in the past, shifting positions. Wegener noted that the present continents appear to fit together as fragments of an originally larger landmass, much the same way the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle fit together. This is especially true if the edges of the continental shelves are used as the boundaries. However, over the years new evidence has been collected that indicates that approximately 200 million years ago, the major continents were connected and since that time the continents have been moving generally apart. The following diagrams show the Inferred Positions of the Continents over the last 458 million years. Label the Geologic Period for each diagram. Diagrams found in ESRT on page 9. Evidence to Support Idea that Continents Have Moved Many rock layers and fossils can be correlated across ocean basins. Rock types along with mineral composition and the fossils found in those rocks match up. A good example of this are rocks and fossils found on the east coast of South America match those found along the west coastline of Africa. Diamonds found in eastern Brazil are very similar to those found in western Africa. More Evidence for Continental Movement Some mountain chains appear to be continuous from continent to continent. Example: Appalachians and Caledonian More Evidence for Continental Movement Rock and fossil evidence indicates ancient climates much different from those of today. Examples: glacial deposits in tropical regions or coal deposits in Arctic More Evidence for Continental Movement Rocks of the ocean basins are much younger than continental rocks. The most conclusive evidence comes from the ocean basins. Explain evidence for sea floor spreading from both igneous ocean rocks and the reversal of magnetic polarity. Evidence to Suggest Sea Floor Spreading There is much evidence to indicate that the ocean floors are spreading out from the mid-ocean ridges. The two major pieces of evidence are related to the age of igneous ocean materials and the reversal of magnetic polarity. a) Igneous Ocean Rocks The ocean crust is made up mainly of basalt that is formed when magma (molten rock) rises, cools, solidifies and crystallizes into igneous rocks of the mid-ocean ridges. Evidence shows that igneous rocks along the center of the mid-ocean ridge is younger (more recently formed) than the igneous rock found farther from the mid-ocean ridge. The age of igneous rock has been accurately determined using radioactive dating techniques. This suggests that as new ocean crust is generated at mid-ocean ridges, the ocean floor widens. Reversal of Magnetic Polarity The strips of basaltic rock that lie parallel to the mid-ocean ridge show matched patterns of magnetic reversals. Check out this animation! Over thousands of years, the magnetic poles of Earth reverse their polarities. The magnetic north pole changes to the magnetic south pole and vice versa. When the basaltic magma flows up in the middle of the ridge and begins to cool, crystals of magnetic minerals align themselves with the Earth’s magnetic field. This alignment of minerals in the rock leaves a recording of magnetic polarity for the Earth at the time of rock formation. When the Earth’s magnetic field is reversed, the new igneous rocks formed during the reversed polarity period have their minerals aligned in an opposite direction from the previously formed rocks. These changes in magnetic orientation are found in rock on both sides of the mid-ocean ridge, indicating that the development of the ocean floor is form the center of the mid-ocean ridges outward. Describe the 3 types of plate motion. Identify plate boundaries. Lithospheric Plates and Plate Boundaries Three kinds of plate motion are associated with plate boundaries; convergent, divergent and transform. a) Convergent Plate Boundaries Convergent Plate Boundaries- plates collide with each other Ocean Plate Meets Continental Plate If an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser ocean plate made of basalt dives down (subducts) into the mantle forming a subduction zone with an ocean trench formed at the surface. At the subduction zone, old crust is consumed by the mantle to create more molten material. The overriding continental plate made of granite forms mountains. An example is the Andes of South America. Ocean Plate Meets Ocean Plate If two oceanic plates converge, the older, denser plate will subduct also forming a trench on the surface along with a chain of islands called an island arc. An example of this convergent subduction zone is the Northern and Western boundaries of the Pacific Ocean. Continental Plate Meets Continental Plate If a continental plate collides with another continental plate, the edge of both plates are crumpled up forming folded mountains. An example of this type of convergent boundary is the Himalayas of India. b) Divergent Plate Boundaries Divergent Plate Boundaries- plates move apart A divergent boundary allows heat and magma to flow up from below forming parallel ridges made of new crustal material. An example of a divergent plate boundary like this is any mid-ocean ridge. c) Transform Plate Boundary Transform Plate Boundary- plates grind slowly past each other At this type of boundary, crust is neither formed nor consumed. An example is San Andreas Fault in California. Shallow focus earthquakes are very common at transform boundaries. Plate Tectonic Map (ESRT p.5) Although plate motion is only a few centimeters a year, the interactions of the boundaries result in earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building on a grand scale showing that the Earth is a dynamic system. Explain how mantle convection cells are thought to be the method for moving crustal plates. Mantle Convection Cells Although forces exist within the Earth that are powerful enough to move the lithospheric plates, the scientific community is not in total agreement on the specific mechanism (method) involved. Convection cell- stream of heated material that is moving due to density differences Evidence suggests that convection cells exist within a part of the mantle called the asthenosphere because of the occurrence of heat flow highs in areas of  mountain building and heat flow lows in areas of shallow subsiding basins. These convection cells may be part of the driving force which causes continents to move. What are hot spots? How are they formed? Hot Spots Hot Spots- places on Earth’s surface with unusually high heat flow Most hot spots occur along active plate margins but some are found within the plates. Hot spots are thought to be caused by magma rising up from the mantle producing sites of active volcanism. Wow! That was Dynamic! Prepare for Chapter Test†¦Good Luck!!! * EartHquakes * Sub-topics: * How strong is an earthquake? Do you live near an active fault? Earthquake and tsunami What is inside the earth? * What is an Earthquake? * An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and movement of large sections (tectonic plates) of the earth’s rocky outermost crust. The edges of the tectonic plates are marked by faults (or fractures). Most earthquakes occur along the fault lines when the plates slide past each other or collide against each other. * The shifting masses send out shock waves that may be powerful enough to alter the surface of the Earth, thrusting up cliffs and opening great cracks in the ground and †¢ cause great damage †¦ collapse of buildings and other man-made structures, broken power and gas lines (and the consequent fire), landslides, snow avalanches, tsunamis (giant sea waves) and volcanic eruptions. * How strong is an Earthquake * Earthquakes are measured in two different ways: 1.) Magnitude 2.)Intensity * Earthquake magnitude * Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the energy released by an earthquake, or its â€Å"size†. Because earthquakes vary a lot in size, earthquake magnitude scales are logarithmic. For a one-step increase in magnitude the amount of energy released increases about 32 times. So a magnitude 7 earthquake is 32 times bigger than a magnitude 6 earthquake, and a magnitude 8 earthquake is 1000 bigger. * Earthquake intensity * Earthquake intensity describes how much ground shaking occurred, or how â€Å"strong† an earthquake was, at a particular location. Earthquake waves weaken as they travel away from the earthquake source, so an earthquake generally feels less strong the further away from the source you are. * Earthquake intensity * The intensity of an earthquake is determined by observing the effects of the earthquake in different places. Houses, buildings, and other structures are inspected. People are interviewed about what they saw (the cabinet fell over), how they felt (I was frightened), or what they did (I ran out of the house). * The Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity scale * MM 1Not felt. * MM 2Felt by peeple at rest on upper floors of buildings. * MM 3Felt indoors, like a small truck passing; hanging objects swing slightly. * MM 4Felt indoors by many, like a heavy truck passing; hanging objects swing, windows rattle. * MM 5Felt outdoors, sleepers awakened, small objects and pictures move. * MM 6Felt by all, crockery breaks, furniture moves, weak plaster cracks. * The Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity scale * MM 7Difficult to stand, noticed by car drivers, furniture breaks, weak chimneys break at roof line, plaster, loose bricks and tiles fall. * MM 8Driving is difficult, ordinary masonry is damaged, chimneys and towers fall, some liquefaction. * MM 9General panic, poor masonry destroyed, ordinary masonry and foundations damaged, liquefaction and landslides. * MM 10Most masonry structures destroyed. Some well-built wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Dams and embankments damaged, large landslides. * MM 11Few buildings left standing. * MM 12Damage nearly total. * FAULTS * What is a fault? * A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other. * The direction of movement along the fault plane determines the fault type. * 3 Major Faults * Normal * Reverse * Strike-slip * Do You Live Near an Active Fault? * An active fault is one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again. Put in another way, an active fault has generated earthquakes before and is capable of causing more in the future. * Scientists use different ways to find out if a fault is active. One is by checking the country’s historical records. Historians always write about destructive events such as earthquakes. * Another is by studying the vibrations, past and present, that come from faults. Still another way is by observing the surroundings. For example, a fault may cross a road and because of that, the road is displaced. * Do You Live Near an Active Fault? * Or a fault may cut across a stream and the stream channel is then shifted. Or a fault may slice through mountains and form cliffs. This is not to say that anyone can spot an active fault. Scientists need a lot of training to do that. * But along some faults, the effects may be dramatic. Suppose a house was built on a fault. As the ground shifts little by little, parts of the house will be affected. The floor will crack, doors will not close, and the roof may start to leak. * Obviously, it is important to know the location of active faults. As far as possible, no important structures should be built near or on them. Tsunami * What is a tsunami? * A tsunami is a series of waves usually caused by an undersea earthquake that displaces the ocean floor. But a tsunami is not really a â€Å"wave† that moves up and down; it’s actually the ocean moving sideways as a massivesurge or a wall of water. It’s also knownas a tidal wave. The Japanese word tsunami means â€Å"harbor wave.†A tsunami can generate waves for 12 to 24 hours. And the first wave is not always Japan, 2011 The Boston Globe the biggest! A tsunami travels across the open ocean at over 500mph, the speed of a jet airplane. As it reaches shallower water and approaches shore, it slows down but grows in height. A tsunami can happen at anytime of day or year. How do earthquakes generate tsunamis? * Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the earth’s crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. Waves are formed as the displaced water mass, which acts under the influence of gravity, attempts to regain its equilibrium. When large areas of the sea floor elevate or subside, a tsunami can be created. * What is a Tsunami Earthquake * A tsunami earthquake is an earthquake that triggers a tsunami of a magnitude that is very much larger than the magnitude of the earthquake as measured by shorter-period seismic waves. Such events are a result of relatively slow rupture velocities. They are particularly dangerous as a large tsunami may arrive at a neighbouring coast with little or no warning. a tsunami earthquake is that the release of seismic energy occurs at long periods (low frequencies) relative to typical tsunamigenic earthquakes. Earthquakes of this type do not generally show the peaks of seismic wave activity associated with ordinary events. A tsunami earthquake can be defined as an undersea earthquake. * What is inside the Earth? * Earth’s Layers * CrustThe crust is the first layer of the earth. It is split up into two parts the continental crust, and the oceanic crust. * Mantle The mantle is the second layer of the earth. It is split up into two different parts, the lithosphere (which is the top part) and the asthenosphere (which is the bottom part). * Earth’s Layers * Outer coreThe outer core is a liquid made up of iron and nickel. The depth of the outer core is 2, 890. This is one of thethree layers that is putting pressure on the inner core. * Inner coreThe Inner crust is the second thinnest layer. The inner core is hotter than the surface of the sun. The inner core is made out of iron and nickel. It is 5159 to 6378 km thick. * Earth’s Layers * The Earth is formed of three concentric layers: the core, the mantle and the crust; these are separated by transition zones called discontinuities. * Mohorovicic discontinuity * Gutenberg discontinuity * How the seismic waves travel * The shaking starts from the focus and spreads out. You can get an idea of how this happens by throwing a pebble into a pond. See the ripples that move out in circles? The vibrations from the focus are something like that. * The vibrations are more properly called seismic waves. As seismic waves travel through the body of the Earth, they behave in different ways, depending on what they encounter along way